Esophageal carcinoma is the sixth leading cause of cancer death in the world,1 and despite multiple studies evaluating different treatment modalities the mortality rate remains high.2 Treatment for esophageal cancer may involve chemotherapy, radiation therapy, and surgery. Recently, there has been an interest in trimodality therapy in an effort to improve survival in patients with moderate-stage disease.
RISK FACTORS AND DIAGNOSIS
The main risk factors for esophageal cancer are tobacco use, Barrett's esophagus, alcohol abuse, and radiation therapy to the mediastinum. Histologically, 90% of esophageal cancers are either adenocarcinoma or squamous cell carcinoma.1 Studies performed on animals suggest that oxidative damage from chronic irritation of the esophagus can cause esophagitis, and increased cell turnover may trigger the carcinogenic process.1 Dysphagia is the most common symptom at the time of diagnosis. Physical examination is usually unremarkable, but a thorough and efficient workup is necessary. At the time of diagnosis, more than 50% of patients have either unresectable disease or radiographic evidence of metastases. Such a high incidence of lymph node involvement may be due to the extensive lymphatic drainage found in the lamina propria and muscularis mucosa deep to the basement membrane, which makes the esophagus unique among the gastrointestinal hollow viscus organs.3 Additionally, patients may develop cancer before they develop cancer-specific symptoms, often producing a long lead time between the onset of cancer and tissue diagnosis.
Diagnosis The diagnostic workup for esophageal cancer includes a barium swallow; upper GI endoscopy with biopsy; staging imaging studies including CT of the chest, abdomen, and pelvis; and possible whole-body PET (positron emission tomography). The barium swallow study may reveal stricture or partial obstruction of the esophagus that may show the classic radiographic apple core lesion. On upper endoscopy, esophageal cancer appears as a friable or ulcerated mass (Figure 1). Biopsies of the mass may be obtained to determine histology. PET and CT scans of the chest, abdomen, and pelvis can reveal possible metastasis. CT scans help to exclude metastases to the lungs and liver as well as to demonstrate possible invasion of the disease to adjacent structures. PET scans can assess possible metastasis to lymph nodes and/or bone. Both studies are noninvasive and are considered a useful and efficient part of the workup for esophageal cancer.
Staging The gold standard for regional staging of esophageal cancer is endoscopic esophageal ultrasound (EUS). This method is accurate in determining the depth of a tumor, or T stage. EUS can also assess tumor involvement in local lymph nodes. Staging for esophageal cancer is classified according to the American Joint Committee on Cancer tumor-node-metastasis (TNM) staging system, which considers histology of the primary tumor, local nodal metastases, and distant metastases.
TREATMENT
Esophageal cancer can be treated with surgery, radiation therapy, or chemotherapy. In order for the cancer to be curable, treatment must focus on eliminating the primary lesion as well as eliminating or preventing metastases.4 Chemotherapy and radiation can be applied before surgery as neoadjuvant therapy, after surgery as adjuvant therapy, or as definitive therapy without surgery. Although esophageal cancer has been widely studied, a well-designed, large-scale, randomized controlled trial has not yet been performed. Factors that complicate the completion of such a study include patient recruitment, differences in surgical techniques, and variations in chemotherapy and radiation treatments. The 5-year survival rate for patients with esophageal cancer is poor for all but those with the earliest-stage tumors, but this rate has improved slightly over the past decade.
Optimal treatments for patients with midstage esophageal cancers remain controversial and are dictated by the stage of disease. For example, stage III disease often requires chemotherapy plus radiation therapy with or without subsequent surgery. In more advanced disease (stages II and III), surgery alone with complete resection of the lesion and other areas with gross disease has a median survival of 12 to 18 months and a 20% 5-year survival rate.1,4,5 Because of the low cure rates with resection and the high incidence of recurrent disease, other treatment modalities have been used in an effort to increase survival rates. Recently, there has been discussion about the use of neoadjuvant chemoradiation followed by subsequent surgery for the treatment of locally advanced esophageal cancer. Some studies suggest that trimodality therapy may yield more successful results and better prognosis for patient survival.
Preoperative radiation In patients with locally advanced esophageal cancer, preoperative radiation can be used to debulk the tumor and sterilize nodal areas. Several studies have demonstrated that this treatment regimen does not improve survival in patients but may help to lower the rate of local recurrence in patients with positive margins.6
Neoadjuvant chemotherapy Similar to preoperative radiation, neoadjuvant chemotherapy is used to downsize the tumor for surgical resection, enhance local control, and prevent micrometastatic disease. Research suggests that preoperative chemotherapy may provide some survival benefit in persons who have a complete pathological response to treatment.4 However, the data remain conflicting because of variations in dosing and number of treatments administered. Adjuvant chemotherapy is used in patients with nodal involvement. A randomized controlled trial performed in Japan demonstrated an improved 5-year survival rate but did not show statistical significance in overall survival rates. There was no improvement in overall 5-year survival rates in subjects who underwent adjuvant chemotherapy with no nodal involvement.4 Definitive chemoradiotherapy in locally advanced esophageal cancer has curative potential, but the rates of local recurrence and metastatic disease can be high with this treatment, with a local recurrence rate of approximately 50%.7
Surgery Surgical resection is the treatment of choice for early-stage esophageal cancer (stages 0 and I) and is chosen based on the extent and location of the lesion.8 Stages I and II cancers are usually treated with surgery alone or followed by subsequent chemoradiation and/or radiation. The rate of recurrence with surgery is around 50%, and most patients present with more advanced-stage disease at the time of recurrence. Multimodality treatment regimens have been used in an attempt to debulk tumors, sterilize lymph nodes, increase survival rates, and prevent recurrence of disease. Cure rates and long-term survival remain unsatisfactory when compared to those for other GI malignancies, such as gastric and colon cancers.2